BY ESTHER O. HAYS
A THESIS
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Submitted in Partial Fulfillmnt of the Requirements for the Degree of
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Master of Arts
(in Comparative Literature)
\par The Graduate School
Unversity of Maine at Orono
August, 1971
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[NOTE: Due to irregularities in the keys of the typewriter used, many of these pages did not\par
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The author wishes to express her appreciation to those who have helped bring this work\par to fruition: to Professor Olga W. Russell, special thanks for her very considerable help in\par establishing guidelines in this field of comnarison; to Professor Terrell for his encouragement\par as the study was begun; to Professor Gross for his knowledge of Hispanic culture which has been\par of such importance in understanding the subject.\par A word of appreciation Is due the Inter-Library Loan\par Department of the University of Maine Library at Orono for their cooperation in searching\par for certain rare books otherwise not available, yet very necessary in achieving a perspective\par where some disputed questions are to be explored.
\par Finally, to the author's husband, Professor John Hays,\par eternal gratitude for his ever-present encouragement and for his belief in the value of scholarly\par endeavors.
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PREFACE \par The author has been astounded to discover a\par whole new path of studies as a result of these investigations into the literature of sixteenth\par century Spain and eighteenth century France. The very intensive analysis of each of the books in\par its original text, as edited by scholars, has led to discussions not only of the meanings behind\par the texts, but also to considerations of the respective civilizations of each author. The fact\par that the identity of one of the authors remains shrouded in mystery has added a new dimension\par suggesting investigations into certain activities of that era of such explosive change.
\par The comparison of these classic examples of the picaresque\par novel has suggested that many of the themes relate to contemporary society; Lazarillo might be a\par boy in a city slum or Gil Blas, a clever young man in the maze of status-seekers.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS \par \tab\tab\tab\tab\tab\tab\tab\tab\tab 1\par \par \par \par Acknowledgements 1\par \par \par Preface 2\par \par \par Chapter\par \par I ORIGINS OF THE PICARESQUE NOVEL 4\par \par \par II RESEMBLANCES BETWEEN GIL BLAS AND 13\par LAZARILLO DE TORMES\par \par III DIFFERENCES IN GIL BLAS AND 37\par LAZARILLO DE TORMES\par \par IV CONCLUSION. EVOLUTION FROM LAZARILLO DE 60\par TORMES TO GIL BLAS\par \par Bibliography 63\par \par Biography of Author 66
\par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par4 \par CHAPTER I
\par ORIGIN OF THE PICARESQUE NOVEL
\par For many years scholars have attributed the beginnings of the\par picaresque novel to a thin volume in Spanish published anonymously in 1554 in Burgos and Alcala,\par Spain and in Antwerp, Flanders.1 It is the first-person narrative of an orphaned boy\par whose mother entrusted him to a blind, wily beggar, the first of a series of masters, most of\par whom were related in one way or another to the clergy. Most remarkable about this publication was\par the fact that the author wrote in fictional prose about the lower levels of society as well as\par about various professions.
\par The descriptions dealt with the world of the pauper and the petty\par thief, rather than with the superhuman events of chivalric novels such as Amadis de Gaula.\par The story of Lazarillo consisted of seven chapters called tractados held together\par principally by the adventures of the determined and resourceful boy. Struggling to stay alive in\par an era when the poor could only improve their lot by attaching themselves to a more fortunate\par adult, he manages to marry the mistress of a local churchman, thus providing for his earthly\par needs through a convenient menage-à-trois.
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\par 1La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes y\par de sus fortunas y aduersidades, ed., Julio Cajador y Frauca (Madrid: Espasa-Calpa, S., 1969),\par p. 20. References to this edition will be made throughout this paper.
\par5 \par Although, or perhaps,because the Lazarillo was an\par instant success, censorship immediately banned it in Spain but the Antwerp edition ensured its\par spread to Europe. One hundred and fifty-nine years later in France, Alain René Lesage was\par to publish the first chapters of a longer picaresque work, L'Histoire de Gil Blas de\par Santillana, a story told in the first person by a youth emphatically more sophisticated than\par Lazarillo, but who followed in his footsteps through various levels of society. Lesage, a\par dramatist as well as a translator of Spanish works, united his talents to produce a novel, still\par episodic, but now with more character development and some semblance of unity in the plot. Thus,\par by 1715, the successor of the 1554 model had blossomed into a true realization of the picaresque\par novel, describing adventures in Spain, but reflecting its author's indebtedness to seventeenth\par contury Molière and his own objectivity as a writer in eighteenth century France. This\par French descendant of Lazarillo followed a debonair and ironic line quite in keeping with the Age\par of Enlightenment.\par In the next century, in 1816, another offspring appeared in\par Mexico as the first true novel of Spanish Amrica, El Periguillo Sarniento of José\par Joaquin Fernández de Lizardi, embodying a biting, anticlerical, social and political\par criticism in the framework of a picaresque novel. This paper will attempt to trace the paths\par emanating from early sixteenth century Lazarillo de Tormes -- the time of its composition\par -- to show the ways in which it differs from and resembles Gil Blas, and finally to point\par out the wide divergence of the Hispanic and the Gallic-Anglo strains of the picaresque novel.
\par6 \par Purposes of the Picaresque Novel, two-fold\par From the start, the purpose of the picaresque genre has been\par twofold, to expose injustice while amusing the reader. Lazarillo's author\par stated in his Preface adressed to a high-level cleric, that he had seen\par remarkable things which should not be buried "in the tomb of\par oblivion"2 and which he hoped would please the reader. He\par quoted Pliny "que no hay libro por malo que sea que no tenga alguna Cosa\par buena."3
\par Criticism of society through a kind of anti-hero narrator goes\par back to the time of Nero when his "arbiter of elegance" named Petronius wrote a\par "long, picaresque novel in which he described the adventures usually\par degenerate and repulsive of an unusually repulsive and degenerate\par hero-narrator .... [It] reflects, accurately and ccnsistently, the life\par and manners, the social, economic and even intellectual conditions of\par Italian provincial towns between A. D. 40 and 70."4 The\par Satyricon, for this has been the name by which we have known this\par work, might have been some inspiration for Guzmán de Alfarache,\par often a somewhat "degenerate and repulsive" picaro who appeared in Spain\par in 1599.
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\par 2La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op. cit. n. 60.
\par 2La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op. cit. n. 61.
\par 4Petronius Arbiter, The Satyricon, trans. William\par Burnaby, intro., Gilbert Bagnani, (Now York: Heritage Press, 1964), p. v.
\par7 \par This picaro, the invention of Mateo Alemán,\par arrived about fifty years after the publication of Lazarillo. Guzmán\par de Alfarache, the first acceptable contribution in this popular genre,\par was a picaresque novel in structure and satirical in content, but it was actually endorsed by the\par Inquisition because it attacked social conditions principally rather than the clergy as had\par Lazarillo de Tormes. Lazarillo, much misunderstood in latter days, attacked only\par the outward trappings of the church, not the essential beliefs. The later Hispanic branch of the\par picaresque novel acquired a cruelty and bitterness as set forth in both Guzmán, and\par in El Periguillo Sarniento, which the Lazarillo did not possess. His humor and\par gibes at established institutions filtered down to Gil Blas in spirit and blended into\par eighteenth century patterns of cool, detached, scientific analysis.\par La Roman de Renart, a Medieval Precursor of the Picaresue Novel
\par Perhaps Lasage felt more at home with this witty, objective\par branch of the picaresque novel because of his heritage from Renart, a medieval collection\par of French verse stories about a clever fox who outwits stronger animals. Is that not what the\par orphaned boys of these novels must do to survive? Chandler says that le Roman de Renart\par was "marked by its sympathy with the anti-hero and from this collection to the picaresque novel\par descended perhaps the latter's best inheritance in its example of consistent roguery."5\par Composed by about twenty poets over a period of some thirty years (1176 - 1200) which produced\par an episodic collection such as we find in the picaresque novels, le Roman de Renart also\par citicized the powerful people of the feudal world, combining exposure of injustice and amusement.
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\par \par 5 Frank W. Chandler, Romances of Roguery (New\par York: The Macmillan Company, 1899), p. 6.
\par8 \par Dans ce\par monde d'animaux nous reconnaissons la parodie de la cour des rois de France et de\par la société féodale où\par chaque animal a son propre caractère, son nom at souvent une fonction\par auprés du roi, la lion noble.6\par La Fontaine was to incorporate the clever Raynard into his alexandrine verses where the animals\par might have been Colbert, Foucquet and Louis XIV.
\par Gil Blas
\par Lesage places his clever human fox, Gil Blas, in the courts\par of Spain, he chooses professions already presented satirically within the classical comedy art of\par Molière, and moves into a long novel, in detail and subject. Unbound by the restrictive\par classical conventions of seventeenth century Franco, he can describe in detail the clothes,\par actions and personalities of unprincipled doctors, lawyers, tutors, ecclesiastical hypocrites and\par other high-level members of the established institutions of the day. Free from having to please a\par Louis XIV as did Molière and La Fontaine, and imbued with a new freedom of language, his\par heritage from Lazarillo has its expression in a prose which appeals to a public quite\par ready for something other than chivalric and pastoral novels. The realistic prose of Charles\par Sorel provided a drastic change for those of the French public who were tired of escaping into\par knighthood or wandering through romantic fields and forests.\par _________________
\par 6John Flinn, Le Roman de Renart dans la littérature frangaise at dans les\par littératures etrangères au Moyern Age, (Pologne: University of Toronto Press,\par 1963), p. 1.
\par9 \par Charles Sorel's Francion.
\par Many people had read a long, episodic novel written in 1623-26 by\par Charles Sorel, a roman de moeurs which went into sixty printings in Paris, Rouen, Troyes\par and was translated into English, German and other languages. Since, as Sorel admitted later, the\par first editions had passages "capables 'd'offenser les àmes pures,' des passages licencieux\par ... et pardessoustout des opinions libertines touchant de près à l'athéisme,"\par the 1626 editions were purged of most unsavory language and the irreligious references.7 Francion is an adventurer who\par having been rescued from from a carriage accident tells his story in a series of episodes\par dealing with Parisian school life, women and encounters with peasants, lawyers and charlatans of\par all kinds. However. although the writing is often gross and uneven, M. Reynier feels it important\par in the picaresque tradition:\par Malgré\par ses imperfections diverses, la grande partie, au moins, du Francion rests parmi nos\par romans de moeurs un des plus intéressants et\par les plus complets, le meffleur neut-ôtre avant\par Gil Blas.8
\par Francion was written to please and to inform.\par Soerl tells us in his preface,
\par "Qu'il\par suffise au peuple de se donner du plaisir de la lecture et de tant d'agréables choses, et\par d'entirer aussi du profit y apprenant de quelle sorte il faut vivre aujourd'hui dans le monde,\par sans\par vouloir pénétrar plus outre."9
\par He tells us in the first lines of the book that we already have\par enough tragic stories in the world, "qu'il en faut uns qui soit toute comique et qui puisse\par apporter de la délectation aux esprits les plus ennuyés."10 Boredom\par with the old forms was setting in, and people were ready to read about the world they know, told\par in language which often was not pretty.
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\par 8Gustave Reynier, Le roman réaliste au XVII\par siècle (Paris: Hachette et cie., 1914), p. 162.
\par 9Charles Sorel, La vraie histoire comique de\par Francion (Paris: Adolphe Delahays, 1858), p, 12.
\par 10Charles Sorel, p. 19.
\par10 \par The Realistic Prose of Lazarillo
\par Pleasure for pleasure's sake was a far cry from\par Lazarillo, but Sorel's statement about his belief that people should learn how to live in\par this world, applied to the ideas set forth by Lazarillo's author. His realistic\par description of the blind man's tricks to extract alms, his details of the city of Toledo, of the\par poor beggars driven out with whips because of the lack of food, were intended not only to\par interest a reader, but also to instruct him.\par Prose was a natural medium for this literature of a\par non-heroic dimension. The fact that the invention of moveable type had recently spread to Spain\par must have encouraged the writer to produce his book about a boy who typified hundreds of\par refugees wandering around Spain. He included many popular sayings and added his own ironic\par interpretations to some well known stories.
\par Social Commentary in Lazarillo
\par Lazarillo's social commentary would continue in the\par Spanish branch of picaresque literature through to José Rubén Romero's biting,\par caustic novel, The Useless Life of Pito Pérez published in Mexico in 1938. Orlando\par Gómez-Gil says of Pito Pérez,\par Acaso, Pito Pérez\par as el retrato de tanto hijo del pueblo a quien las circunstancias adversas han\par envenenado. La novela tiene una dimnsión\par cómica y lirica; irónica y regoeijada. La filosofía es muy\par intencionada. La realidad mexicana está vista a\par través de un temperamento volteriano y anárquico:\par simpatía por la verdad y por los desválidos,\par burla escéptica contra los prejuicios; mofa de los\par convencionalismos sociales. Romero no rehuye el chiste\par subido de tono y las palabras más fuertes.\par La influencia más directa es la del Lazarillo de\par Tormes y El Pariguillo Sarniento de Fernándezde Lizardi.11.\par __________________
\par 11Orlando Gómez-Gil, Historia Critica de la\par Literatura Hispano-americana desde los orígenes hasta\par el momento actual (New York:\par Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968), p. 601.
\par11 \par Four hundred years after the publication of the Lazarillo we\par recognize in Pito Pérez the individual who was "basically good, kindly and sensitive"\par whose "confrontation with reality wounds him and transforms him into a picaro"12 The\par sketch above is of twentieth century Pito, but it might as well be Lazarillo. Romero's\par laundresses washing their clothes in today's México are almost the same as the ones we met\par in Toledo where Lazarillo went to the river in search of water for the eseudero. The\par reader identifies with the starving, proud squire, pretending to be more than a shell of a man,\par as Lazarillo shares his crumbs with him. The hungry people of that Spain, even if they could not\par read the book themselves, could feel at one with the boy, and with the man who evidently typified\par many men who had come back from war or from the Now World to find their land gone and no future.\par Sebastian de Horozco's Cancionero has a poem about just such\par a man:
\par Y los negocios son tales\par Que se ha tornado eseudero\par Y sobre todos sus males\par No hay en casa seis reales\par Vos, tambien, pobre escudero\par Que vivi6 en miserias.13\par These simple verses, written around the time of the publication of the Lazarillo, explain\par that affairs were so bad that the escudero had only six coins at home, that he must live\par in misery forever. The Cancionero was realistic poetry of the Deople, and in the prose of\par Lazarillo de Tormes we encounter stark realism woven into amusing stories.\par _______________
\par 12Ibid.\par 13La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes op. cit., Note\par 2, p. 178.
\par12 \par Exposure of Injustice in Lazarillo and Gil Blas\par Ever since the appearance of\par Lazarillo de Tormes, exposure of injustice has continued as a\par theme of the picaresque novels even though, often heavily veiled. It\par was rather clearly stated by Lazarillo in his descriptions of the\par manner in which everyone must purchase his salvation if he wishes to\par avoid hell, or in the references to a servant having to die with his\par master on the battlefield, or in the long trail of people mentioned\par above, being flogged as they are driven from a city.
\par The fervor of the Spanish author\par produces a more moving and personal reaction in the reader, but the\par revelation of injustices is just as important to Lesage, whose careful\par prose carried within it many barbs quite as satirical as those of\par Lazarillo's author.
\par The artistry, of Lasage embodied\par in the facile, seemingly, mindless chatter of Gil Blas exposes\par injustices through general descriptions of a way of life of clergymen,\par doctors, courtiers and their intrigues and goals. A particularly\par graphic story deals with deceiving a Jewish merchant into believing a\par falsehood that would wreck his life. These revalations are accomplished\par with such skill that the author might be recounting humorous tales in\par much the vein of La Fontaine, although the prose form allows Lesage\par more latitude than the alexandrine verses of the classical seventeenth\par century permitted the writers of that day.
\par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par13 \par
CHAPTER II \par
RESEMBLANCES BETWEEN GIL BLAS AND LAZARILLO DE TORMES \par It would seem that there are abiding\par resemblances in the mood and purpose of Gil Blas and Lazarillo. The first person\par narratives written with care as to facts of common, everyday life are alike in general. They both\par mention details of cities and real events which give an authority to the stories. Cervantes was\par one of the first writers to define the picaresque as "adventures of a new type of the 'free\par life'."1 This describes accurately the adventures of a new type of the new genre, a\par now type of hero who was searching for a foothold in true life adventures rather than in\par fantastic and supernatural ones about unbelievable creatures and chivalric knights.
\par The young hero addresses himself to a higher\par authority or to the reader, but the point is that he is telling his life story, to someonne who\par will listen and read. Thus the impression of truth is conveyed to a public just learning to read\par in the vernacular. The sixteenth century Spanish public was accustomed to hearing "true" stories\par by friends or relatives as part of their amusement and as a source of news of eveats. The episodes of the picaresque novel were a natural step forward, Lazarillo told his stories as\par a visitor who might sit down for an evening. However, this story teller was a master at making\par his audience weep and laugh at the same time.
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\par 1Joaquin Casualdero, Sentido y forma\par de las novelas ejemplares de Cervantes (Madrid: Editorial \par Gredos, 1962), p. 44.
\par14 \par Lesage retained this episodic flavor in his book although\par the thread of the story was more highly developed. Lazarillo's author unified the\par episodes mainly through the person of Lazarillo himself, who in telling his story lent a mood\par which carried on from one tractado to the next.\par An interesting resemblance between the two books is the\par ending of each in which the protagonist finally joins society in his own inimitable way, having\par left the marginal existence of a picaro. Lazarillo settles down with the priest's mistress\par mentioned above and since "evil tongues" have impugned her honor, he wants to protect her from\par further gossip. He says he loves her more than anything else in the world and swears that she is\par better than any woman in Toledo.2 Gil Blas says sardonically on the last page of his\par story, that he has been married for three years and has two children "dont je crois pieusement\par être le pére."3
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\par 2La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op. cit.,\par pp. 236-240.\par 3Alain R. Lesage, Histoire de Gil Blas de Santillane avec préface,\par bibliographie et notes par\par Maurice Bardon (Paris: Garnier Fr`eres, 1962. 2 vols.), p.\par 354. References to this edition\par will be made throughout this paper.
\par15 \par By the time that Lesage wrote Gil Blas, picaresque\par literature had been further developed so that at least the idea of a plot and the The author of\par Lazarillo had not named his characters although he had located them in realisticsettings and\par had made them live as beings of "carne y hueso," as critics of Spanish literature use the terms\par It remained for Mateo Alemán to develop a plot and expand the outreach of a picaro. His\par Guzmán mentioned earlier in this thesis was published with the blessing of Phillip II,\par king of Spain. Four editions were published in one year and by 1604 there had been twenty-six\par editions printed in Barcelona, Paris, Brussels, Coimbra and Lisbon.4 Julio Cajador\par says that the Guzmán de Alfarache is basically a work of moral criticism, and only\par a picaresque novel in form and exterior, that a casual reader will see only the exterior.\par However, he finds Alemán the "prince of the Spanish picaresque."5
\par Alemán gives names to his numerous characters\par and moves them around in the society of well-known historical settings. His hero visits prisons,\par hospitals, he has developed into more of a rogue than Lazarillo. Fifty years before the\par publication of the Guzmán, Lazarillo had spoken of "el ciego," "el escudero," "el\par buldero," presenting these characters as types. The only names of characters in his book are\par significantly those of Lazarillo, his mother and his father.
\par The Guzmán de Alfarache was translated\par into French by Chapelain and probably influenced Lesage in his picaresque work. M. Lintilhac says\par in his book on Lesage,
\par Dans sa\par traduction Chapelain conclut an ces termes un tras sagaz dissertation sur la littérature\par picaresque et sur ce roman qulil y tient le premier\par lieu. 'Si nos Franqais le voulaient antreprendre,\par je tions que le lui enlgveraient! ... C'était\par prophétiser le Gil Blas.
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\par 4Mateo Alemán, Guzmán de\par Alfarache, editor, Julio A. Cojador y Frauca (Madrid: Imprenta\par Renacimianto, 1913). P. 16.\par 5Alemán, op. cit., pp. 10, 11.
\par16 \par 'Je ne me suis proposer que de reprélsenter la\par vie des hommes telle qu'elle est,' dit Lesage. Tel avait été aussi le dessein\par supéreur de l'autour espagnol de Guzmá, auquel il avait donné le\par titre d'Atalaya de la vida, qua Chapelain loue fort at traduit par Image ou Miroir de la\par humaine.6\par Alemán had said that by having a rascal for his hero, he\par would be able to paint realistically "the minor vices of this world and also the greatest vices."\par Lintilhac finds that this was undoubtedly an important part of the plan of Lesage and that\par Guzm&aacue;n de Alfarache was certainly one of his models for Gil Blas.7\par Thus., the Guzán acted as an intermediary between the original picaresque and the highly\par developed art of Lesage.
\par Similar Origins of the Two Heroes
\par Both Gil Blas and Lazarillo came from humble origins, although the\par latter had as few earthly goods as possible. Both possessed intelligence and great determination\par to raise themselves to a more advantageous level of society.
\par Lazarillo's author gives exact information as to his circumstances of birth, credentials for his\par parents, of his father having been a miller for fifteen years near the Tormes River and then\par arrested for petty thievery. As punishment his father was sent away as a servant to a gentleman\par soldier who joined the expedition at Gelves, a tragic military action taken against the Moors in\par 1510. In one devastating sentence, Lazarillo., then eight years old, says of his father, "Y con\par su señor como leal criado, fenesció la vida."8 His . devotion to his\par master, his lack of freedom to act on his own and finally, his sacrificing his very\par life in that devotion, are all contained in those few words.
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\par 6Eugène F. Lintilhac, Lesage (Paris: Libraire Hachatte, 1893), pp. 86,\par 87.\par 7Lintilhac, op. cit., p. 87.
\par 8La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op. cit., pp. 67, 68.
\par17 \par In twenty-five iines of prose, the author compresses the\par above details of his father's life and death. Lazarillo goes on to set the stage which would be\par the background for many picaresque heroes in the future. Parents in later picaresque novels were\par also poor and future authors, taking their lead from Lazarillo, would use realistic details to\par show the background of the heroes. Here we meet bis mother:\par My widowed mother, now\par without husband or other shelters deciding to join the good peoole in the city, rented a small\par house and set herself to cooking meals for certain students and to washing clothes for the grooms\par at the stables of the Comendador de la Magdalena, a nearby parish.9
\par This passage at the very beginning of the book mentions\par the common people of the area, the work done by a woman so that her family could eat, a far cry\par from the novels of the knights who rescued damsels in distress and who performed unbelievable\par exploits. The phrase used about "Joining the good people" is taken from a well-known folk saying\par found in a list compiled by Juan de Valdés in his Dialogo de la Lingua.10\par Part of the realism of Lazarillo lies in the many references to these refranes\par which were incorporated into the language of the day. The reader knew them well and identified\par with them thus giving credence and interest to the story of the life of Lazarillo.
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\par 9La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op.\par cit, p. 69.\par 10Juan de Valdés, Dialogo de la\par lengua, ed., José F. Montesinos (Madrid: Espasa-Calpe, S. A.,\par l962), p. 54.
\par18 \par The reader is told also in the first few sentences of\par the book that the background is early sixteenth contury Spain, that the struggle\par with the Moors continues, that a field hand has little opportunity to appeal\par injustice and that a widow can survive only by attaching herself to those who might be better off\par than she. Future novels to be classified as Picaresque would begin in this fashion, the\par first-person narrative of a young boy left to his own resources, who would tell of his family\par circumstances as he began his adventures.\par Dealing with these ordinary people seems natural to a\par twentieth century reader, but it was a revolutionary idea in sixteenth century Spain that common\par events would be interesting to many people. The popularity of Lazarillo proved that there\par was a ready audience.
\par More than a century later Gil Blas tells his life story by\par setting forth his family background. However, he begins farther up the social and economic\par scale than Lazarillo. His parents, employed as servants in Oviedo, Spain, recognize the value of a\par good education and send him to live with his uncle Gil Pgrez, a minor cleric. He describes his\par uncle as follows:
\par \par Représentez-vous un petit homme haut de trois pieds et demi, extraordinairement gros, avec\par une tête enfoncés entre daux\par épaules. Voilà mon oncle. Au reste, c'était un\par ecclésiastique qui no\par songeait qu'à bien vivre, c'est-à-dire qu'à faire bonne chère; et sa\par prébonde qui n'était pas mauvaise, lui\par an fournissait las moyens.11
\par This is an excellent example of the art of Lesage in which he creates a character with a few, sure\par strokes. Gil Pérez turned out to be rather ignorant, but he had a friend who taught logic\par and the classics to Gil Blas until he was seventeen, when they sent him by mule to the University\par of Salamanca. He never did arrive, but that is rest of this story of his Life.
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\par 13Lesage, op. cit., I, 3.
\par19 \par Thus we see that the books resemble each\par other in the form of the first-person narrative and in the early lives of the heroes. Their\par parents wanted to improve their sons' prospects and each carried out the appropriate action. Gil\par Blas was fortunate enough to receive an education only because he happened to have a well placed\par patron.\par Lazarillo's climb from poverty to success was steep\par and he had only his own wit as resource, His mother, like the mother of Gil Blas, wanted the best\par for him, but her assets reached only as far as the labors she could perform for students and the\par operation of a boarding house. Lazarillo could never, himself, have imagined possessing the\par education of those students which he must have seen daily in his home. He helped his mother by\par running errands; his school was practical and he was forced to use his wits to survive.
\par The Picaros and Certain Professions
\par One of the characteristics of the picaresque novel as\par established by Lazarillo de Tormes was a clever device for describing certain professions\par and levels of society. As a result of being apprenticed to various professionals, the protagonist\par could report with authority his own activities and those of his amo, master, as Lazarillo\par called the man whom he assisted. The very fact that a young boy described what he saw and felt,\par gave the authors of picaresque novels an opportunity to present realistic details quite\par ingenuously.
\par Both Lesage and the author of the Lazarillo knew\par how to combine humor and realism in their heroes so as to produce seemingly harmless anecdotes\par used to veil mordant attacks on established institutions. They both hit hard at medicine and\par religion early in their novels.
\par20 \par Lazarillo's First Master, the Versatile Blind Beggar\par Lazarillo's first master was a blind beggar, a familiar\par figure in Spain of the 1500's. Instead of a simple mendicant,, he turned out to be a combination\par clergyman, psychologist and physician. Lázaro says of him,
\par Since God\par created the world, he never made a man wiser or more astute. He was an eagle at\par his job. He knew over one hundred prayers from memory\par ... for many and diverse purposes: for\par childless women, for those in labor, for those\par unhappily married, for those happily married. He\par even predicted whether a parent could expect a bay or\par girl baby.12
\par He would cure passion -- according to Cajador --\par "physical suffering" -- by describing herbs and roots, In one month he earned more than most\par blind men made in a year. His success in curing toothaches, vertigo and women's ailments made\par him so popular that a crowd of women followed him everywhere.13
\par The author of Lazarillo has used this episode to show\par the daily life and needs of that period of Spanish history. By mentioning prayers for childless\par women and the other maladies, Lazarillo reveals to the reader that an extremely limited state of\par medicine existed at least for the poor at that time, if healing could be accomplished by a man\par who was not bnly uneducated but also blind. The blind man answered a need felt by those who\par crowded after him, a need evidently not fulfilled by those trained to be doctors and clergymen.
\par His wit was his fortune; he taught Lazarillo that he\par must use his wit to survive, and through this advice from el ciago, astuteness became the\par landmark of the picaro. El ciego had "neither silver nor gold," but he did\par set Lazarillo on the right track. "Thus it was that after God, he gave me life, and although\par blind, he lighted my way and set me straight in the career of life."14 There is a\par profound spirit of gratitude in the character of Lazarillo as well as a religious consciousness\par and familiarity with biblical language, as expressed in those words.
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\par 12La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op. cit., pp. 79, 80.\par 12La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op. cit., pp. 79, 80.
\par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par21 \par The boy is careful to note that "after God" the blind man\par gave him life. What does the author mean by life? Is it a door to a better world than that of\par poverty? But Lazarillo wants it along with God. References of this kind throughout the text\par demonstrate that the writer was an individual who understood the spirit of Christianity. The\par unknown author of Lazarillo might have implanted hope in the heart of many a poor boy who know he\par had a good mind, but none of the other attributes necessary for survival in those days. M.\par Morel-Fatio in his perceptive book, Études sur 1'Espagne, describes how the\par Lazarillo was smuggled back into Spain15 even after the Burgos and\par Alcalá editions had been confiscated.
\par Par toutes les frontiares\par maritimes ou terrestres, des cortaines de ces Lazarilles, en se faufilant\par dans des ballots de drap, de toile ou de mercerie,\par pénétraient quand même en terre d'Inquisition.
\par The immense popularity of the Lazarillo indicates that\par it must have struck responsive chords in the hearts of the public or they would not have risked\par their lives to read it or even associate with those who read it. It drifted not only back into\par Spain from Antwerp but over to the New World, where its descendant, El Periguillo Sarniento, was the product of the journalist,\par Fernández de Lizardi., mentioned above.
\par _________________
\par 14La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op..cit., 78.\par 15A. Morel-Patio, Études sur 1'Espagne (Paris: Librairie E. Bouillon,\par Editeur, n.d.), p. 126.
\par22 \par The Professions of\par the Clery According to Gil Blas\par Lesage followed the pattern set by the Lazarillo when\par he placed Gil Blas with a ninor church official as a scribe, and later with Dr. Sangrado in an\par episode which cleverly weaves together activities of representatives of medicine, law and\par religion. With his sure dramatic artist's pen, Lesage makes physical descriptions come alive with\par enough realistic details to produce a comedy of manners.
\par The illness of Gil Blas's employer, a canon named Sedillo,\par necessitated calling in Dr. Sangrado, a physician regarded as the Hippocrates of Valladolid. His\par portrait was based on the life of a real doctor, Dr. Hacquet, dean of the faculty of medicine of\par Paris, who wrote a two volume book on the Vertus de l'eau commune.16 Gil Blas\par says that Dr. Sangrado had a simple remedy for all ills, a combination of forced warm water and\par blood-letting every three hours. He disparaged other doctors who used medicines:
\par D'autres à ma\par place ordonneraient sans doute les remèdes salins, urineux, volatils, et qui pour\par la plupart, participant du soufre et du mercure, mais les\par nurgatifs et les sudorifiques sont les\par drogues pernicieuses et inventées par les charlatans;\par toutes les préparations chimiques ne\par semblent faites qua pour nuire.17
\par It seems as though medicine hadn't improved much since the time of Lazarillo's ciago. Gil Blas\par applies Dr. Sangrado's curative flooding method to Sedillo while the surgoom bloods the patient.\par Tncidentally, Lesage probably invented the name Sangrado from the Spanish word for blood,\par sangree.
\par ________________
\par 16Lesage., op. cit., I, p. 366, note 277.\par 17Lesage,, op. cit., I, p. 79.
\par23 \par \par Subtle revelations about physicians' methods are insinuated\par into nearly every sentence in this scene. Gil Blas calls the surgeon companion of Dr. Sangrado an\par "exécuteur de la haute médicine,"18 an ironical note, for the patient\par is on his way to execution as soon as the two doctors begin treatment. Dr. Sangrado admits that\par "dès le premier jour ils avaient condamné le licencié," to which statement\par Gil Blas replies that they are never really wrong when they render such a judgement, implying\par that they don't really exoect to cure any patient.\par The irony and satire in this episode are biting, but subtIe\par as well. Now that Sedillo is dead, Gil Blas accepts a now position as copyist for Dr. Sangrado,\par who promises him that within three weeks he will be his assistant, with authority for him to\par substitute on house calls. Copy work turned out to be an excellent stepping stone to a future for\par Gil Blas. To be a scribe required a minimal education, but when accompanied by ingenuity, it\par could lead to heretofore unimagined heights. A digression here will explain the importance of\par this seemingly menial task.
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\par 18Lesage, op. cit., I, p. 79.
\par24 \par The Métier of Scribe, a Stepping
\par Stone to Success and Freedom\par The fact that there were so many copyist jobs as reported by\par Lesage in the eighteenth century reflects an advance in education for the common man. In\par Lazarillo's time instruction was rarely available for any but the very top level of society, and\par although documents are mentioned, there is no clue that Lazarillo knows how to write. Because Gil\par Blas had a freedom of thought and action through this education he had acquired, he seemed to be\par a much freer individual than Lazarillo. The latter was owned by his amo and was treated as\par a possession, with the exception of the squire Of the third tractado, who became a true\par friend. However, by utilizing his wit, even though he had no education, Lazarillo eventually was\par able to turn his back on poverty.
\par Lesage shows that a combination Of cleverness and even\par limited education as applied to the métier of scribe, gave power to Gil Blas whether as\par copyist for the Archbishop of Granada, assistant to Doctor Sangrado or secretary to the Duke of\par Lerma at the court of King Phillip IV of Spain.
\par To return to the copying position just acquired by Gil Blas,\par Dr. Sangrado outlined his duties carefully, as follows:
\par Il me chargea le soin de\par tenir ce livre qu'on nouvait justemrnt appeler un registre\par morturairepuisque ces gens dont je prenais las noms, mouraient presque\par tous.\par J'inscrivis, pour ainsi parler les personnes qui voulaient\par partir pour l'autre monde,\par comme uncommis dans un bureau de voiture publique\par écrit le nom de caux qui\par retiennent des places.19
\par How macabre a notion that once a patient is in the hands of a physician, he is on the way, not\par to health, but to death.
\par In two sentences Lesage has expressed a profound concern over\par the corruption of the very purpose of medicine. What irony that in the worlds of Gil Blas and\par Lazarillo doctors do not cure bodily ills nor are clerics truly concerned for the soul.
\par _________________
\par 19Lesage., op. cit., I. p. 81.
\par25 \par Lesage gives us an insight into the intellectual and\par spiritual level of church canons when he reveals that in Sedillo's will, he had\par named Gil Blas to receive "une bibliothéque de tous mes livres at mes\par manuserits, sans aucune exception." The bequest turned out to be rather less than generous, for\par the only books in the library of this church official were a cookbook, a book on digestion and\par a breviary.20\par The characters in the picaresque novel are often engaged in\par work which has uplifting goals; however, these individuals demean such noble professions through\par their hypocrisy and dishonesty. Neither Lazarillo nor Gil Blas criticizes the high intent of the\par study of true medicine, law or religion, but each does indicate that individual doctors, sheriffs\par or clerics do not try to attain the standards they should set for themselves. This was the\par concern of the author of Lazarillo that moral and social ills be noted and diagnosed.
\par Possible Authorship of Lazarillo,
\par Juan de Valdés\par Some scholars find evidence that the author of the\par Lazarillo might have been a follower of Erasmus, or perhaps a person from a group of\par writer-reformers who were concerned with religious and social questions. The Valdés\par brothers, both remarkable writers, belonged to this group which centered at the home of the\par Marquis of Villena near the town of Escalona. Again, we quote M. Moral-Fatio:
\par L'auteur, esprit tras\par caustique at tras observateur n'a su en vue que la satire\par sociale .... c'est aux alentours des frères\par Valdés, Juan et Alonso, dans ce groupe\par d'esprits très libres, tolérés\par un temps par Charles-Quint et qua I'intransigeance de\par Philippe II devait plus tard extirper à jamais du\par sol d'Espagne, c'est dans ce milieu\par d'écrivains et d'hommes d'Etat trés\par préoccupés c'e questions religiouses et sociales, en\par littérature disciples et\par imitateurs Lucien et d'Erasme, que fleurit particuliarèment ce\par genre de moralité\par pendant la première moitié du XVIe siècle, et c'est, si nous ne\par nous\par trompons, dans ce milieu-là qu'il conviendrait de\par chercher tout d'abord l'auteur de\par Lazarillo.21
\par \par ________________
\par 20Lesage, op. cit., p. 81.\par 21Morel-Fatio, op. cit., pp. 162, 164
\par26 \par Whether or not the author was from the group mentioned\par by M. Morel-Fatio, the criticism of society in the Lazarillo follows the idea of M.\par Bataillon that "la satire erasmianne no reproche pas aux prètres de mal vivre, mais de\par mal croire."22 The priest of Maqueda, mhom we shall meet in the next section of this\par paper, seems to this writer, to be guilty, of both "mal vivre" and "mal croire."\par The Greed of a Priest of Maqueda
\par The Second tractado of the Lazarillo is a\par rich source of realistic information about the everyday life of a priest who even uses biblical\par phrasing to taunt his starving young helper. The themes of hunger and greed stand out in relief,\par as many kinds of food are described by Lazarillo, who must himself wait four days for his ration\par of onions, kept under lock and key by this priest of Maqueda "as though they were sweets from\par Valencia rather than onions nailed on a wall."23
\par Lazarillo mentions that it would be pleasurable simply\par to view bacon hanging by the chimney, cheese in a cabinet or a basket with left-over broad. He\par recalls a custom of eating meet on Saturdays which dated back to 1212.
\par ______________________
\par 22Marcel Bataillon, Érasme et I'Espagne (Paris: Librairie E. Droz, 1937),\par p. 652.\par 23Lazarillo de Tormes, op. cit., pp. 114-116.
\par27 \par Los sibados\par cómense on esta tiorra cabegas de carnerc y embiuame por vna que\par costaua tres marauedis. Aquella le cozi y comia los olas y la\par lengua y el cagote y sesos\par y la carne.24\par The author's exact descriptions of the food are almost too realistic for a twentieth century\par reader who is not accustomed to consuming eyes and brains of animals. However, this book was\par written for a different age and the picture painted by Lazarillo is clearly based on fact\par according to Cajador.
\par Among Lazarillo's duties was that of going to the market for\par food for his master. After he would return from purchasing the eyes, tongue, brains and other\par meat, the priest having had his fill, would throw his already knawed bones to the boy, saying,\par "Take, eat, overcome, for the world is yours. You live better than the Pope,"25 a\par cruel paraphrase from the communion service of the Christian church wherein Christ's broken\par body is symbolized.
\par One might wonder where "mal croiré" ends and "mal\par vivre" begins, to refer back to the statement of M. Bataillon. Is the author of Lazarillo\par not concerned with the fact that an abundant life, both spiritually and physically, should be\par available to even as lowly an individual as Lazarillo de Tormes? The greedy priest might have\par been created to illustrate the fact that belief and a way of life are closely connected.
\par _________________
\par 24La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op. cit., pp. 114-116.\par 25La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op. cit., p. 116.
\par28 \par The Theme of Hunger: a Trend Toward Naturalism\par The theme of hunger leads to a grotesque allusion to the\par bread locked in an ancient chest. This bread, called "bodigos" was customarily donated by\par relatives of the deceased to the parish priest. Anson Piper, writing in Hispania called\par the priest a "heartless guardian of the loaves."26 An impression of raw cruelty and\par the grotesque is apparent in this episode, which approaches the grotesque, as a trend toward\par Naturalism which has continued in other Spanish picaresque novels up to contemporarv South\par American fiction.
\par This tendency toward ugliness is one of the attributes of the\par picaresque novel not exploited by Lesage who kept his prose well within the French ideas of "la\par raison" and beauty. This is one of the important differences and mill be discussed later in the\par section on differences.
\par Refined Greed in the Archbishop of Granada
\par The theme of greed in a churchman is repeated in Gil\par Blas through an episode involving the Archbishop of Granada, a latter-day priest of Macueda who\par also uses his profession for personal pleasure and gain, although on a grand scale. The\par eighteenth century cleric resides in an elegant palace surrounded by a retinue of courtiers. The\par bones he throws to his snobbish lackeys are favors for which he expects unfailing devotion.\par Leasage's characters in this episode are not hungry for either physical or spiritual broad; they\par do want to shine socially and politically.
\par ___________________
\par 26Anson C. Piper, "The 'Breadly Paradise' of Lazarillo de Tormes.."\par Hispania, 44 (196l), pp. 269-271.
\par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par29 \par \par Their needs involve personal advancement in keeping with a\par society that had lived with Louis XIV and into the regency of Louis XV. Gil Slas describes the\par Archbishop exactly and graphically:
\par Ca prélat\par était dans sa soixante-neuviéme année fait à-peu-près comme\par mon oncle, le chanoîne\par Gil Pérez, c'est-à-dire gros et court. Il avait\par par-dessus le marché des jambes fort tournées an\par dedans et il était si\par chauve qu'il ne lui restait qu'un toupet de cheveux par derrière ce qui I'obligeait\par d'emboîter sa t&eagravete dans un bonnet de laine\par fine à longues oreilles.27
\par One notes the increase of physical description as compared\par with the time of Lazarillo. The author of Lazarillo did not mention in any detail\par the outward appearance of either the blind man or the priest of Maquada, rather devoting his art\par to dissecting them spiritually, which was most important to his purpose of exposing inner\par corruptions. Lesage succeeds in showing the bishop as a pretentious individual both in clothes\par and attitude.
\par Gil Blas, as observer, stands back and watches this bishop. He and the reader are suddenly\par viewers of a scene where Gil Blas is more than a vapid, light-hearted fellow, but one who sees\par beneath the surface as well.
\par Nous autres personnes du\par commun, nous regardons las grands seignours avec un prévention qui\par leur prète souvent un air de grandeur qua la nature\par leur a refusé....28
\par Gil Blas is no longer a naive young man who had been much\par impressed by the outer trappings of a bishop. Lesage's irony is at its most biting here when he\par talks about the great wisdom in the exterior of clergymen.
\par ________________
\par 27Lesage, op. cit., II, p. 10.\par 28Lesage, op. cit., II, p. 11.
\par30 \par Quelle\par sagesse il y avait dans l'extérieur des ecclésiastiques! Ils me parurent de\par saints\par personnages, tant le lieu où j'étais tenait mon\par esprit en resnect! Il ne me vint pas soulement en\par pensee que c'était de la fausso monnale, comme si l'on\par n'en pouvait pas voir chez las princes de\par l'Église.29\par The Archbishop's greed was shown bv his desire to be catered\par to by his courtiers. The priest of Maqueda by controlling Lazarille with the bread in the chest,\par kept him within his power. In spite of the relative difference between the life styles of the\par sixteenth century Spanish priest and the extravagant bishop, they have the same faults. Hypocrisy\par and greed are exposed in Lesage's statement about the "fausse monnaie" observable beneath velvet\par and satin. Whereas the avarice of the priest was related to food and the control of Lazarillo by\par means of this and Lazarillo's religious sensitivity to the Eucharist, the Archbishop's greed\par extended to his courtiers and his desire for their presence around him. Lesage finds an irony in\par the fact that the Archbishop's entourage is not even aware that they are not free neople, Gil\par Blas calls them,
\par Un peuple\par d'ecelésiastioues et de gens d'épée dont la plupart étaient des\par officiers du\par monseigneur, ses aumòniers, ses gentilshomnes, ses écuyers ou ses\par valets de chambre. Las\par laíques avaient tous des habits superbes; ...\par Parbleu, disais-je, ces gons-ci sont bien heureux de\par porter le joug de la servitude.30
\par Ironical and satirical comments abound in the discussions of\par most established institutions and their representatives. Generally, however, neither Gil Blas nor\par Lazarillo makes fun of members of the lower classes, unless these people have allowed themselves\par to become pawns of their patrons. The "valets de chambre" mentioned above seem to have disgusted\par Lwsage by their subservience. However, for the most part, the authors concentrated their ironic\par attacks on upper class individuals and institutions, which had exploited the oppressed and lower\par classes.
\par __________________
\par 30Lesage, on. cit., II, pp. 9, 10.
\par31 \par The Women in Gil Blas and Lazarillo\par Among the groups who could not escape their shackles\par in society were the women of both Gil Blas and Lazarillo de Tormes. Some women in\par Gil Blas were well off financially, all in Lazarillo were poor; however, they were\par united by the fact that the women presented demonstrated little if any formal education, they\par were consided chattel and seemed to exist only to provide comfort for men.
\par Because of the importance of the place of motherhood in\par society and in the Lazarillo and Gil Blas, a word should be said about the mothers\par of the two heroes.
\par Lazarillo's author attacks injustice toward a wife and\par mother in his sympathetic presentation of Antona Pérez, Lazarillo's mother. Through moving\par descriptions of her struggles to provide for her children he enlists the reader's compassion.\par This mother is the prototype of uneducated, low-born women who are forced to support their\par families by any means at their disposal, including prostitution.
\par Lazarillo tells of a man he calls "El Zayde" who came\par often to their boarding house, who somehow caused the food to improve and the general atmosphere\par to become more pleasant. The fact that the man who "continued his stay and conversation," was\par "mareno," a euphemism for black, introduces a subtheme of racism. Lazarillo reports that "my\par mother ended up by giving me a handsom negrito - whom I bounced up and down to keep him warm."
\par ____________________
\par 31La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op.\par cit., p. 69.
\par32 \par A dramatic scene revealing the child's\par sudden awareness of their different colored skins injects a discordant note into the family\par group.\par Y\par acuérdome que, astando el negro de mi padrastro trebejando con el moquelot como el\par niño via a mi madre e a mi blancos y a el no,\par huya dé'l con miedo para mi madre y, señalando con\par el dedo, dezia: 'Madre, coco!'\par Respondio é riendo: 'Hideputa!' 32
\par This author, centuries before Rousseau's Emile,\par Dickens' Oliver Twist or Twain's Huckleberry Finn, understands a child's reaction\par to such a situation, his fright when he noticed that his father's skin was darker than that of\par Lazarillo and his mother. The father, "laughing," puts a stigma on both the negrito and\par his mother by an accusing answer, "Hideputa," son of a whore.
\par By his invention of this inter-racial family, the\par author was able to place his hero at a very low spot in the economic and social scale of\par Lazarillo closes this part of his life with a\par perceptive statement about his mother and how she returned to her family, alone, her "Zayde"\par having been hung; "even with all of this, it fell to my mother to raise my little brother ...\par until he know how to walk and to raise me until I was big enough to run errands and to help where\par I was able." 34\par sixteenth century, Spain, which country was at that time establishing in the New World a rigid\par caste system barring blacks and mestizos from certain positions and where mixed blood was even a\par worse detriment. Lazarillo, himself, was of course, assumed not to have mixed blood but his very\par association with racially mixed rsovle tended to put him in a low position. Lazarillo's mother,\par too poor to pay the church fees demanded for marriage and baptism, had to live on the outskirts\par of organized society. Thus, with no well-placed friends to plead for her she had to suffer the\par consequences of her second husband's breaking the law. Antona Pérez was given, for the\par second time , "pena por justicia sobre el acostumbrado acentenario.... La triste se esforzo y\par cumplio la sentencia."33
\par ____________________
\par 32La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op. cit., p.71.\par 33La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op. cit., pp. 74, 75.
\par33 \par "Pena por justicia" appears to be a\par corruption of the meaning of a verse from the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew V: 10, 11,\par "Blessed are those which are persecuted for righteousness' sake, for theirs is the kingdom of\par heaven." Her "persecution for righteousness' sake" amounted to being lashed one hundred strokes\par and led through the streets as a public spectacle. This was realism, for it depicted scenes which\par occurred constantly in sixteenth century Spain. It was ironic that, later on in his life, one of\par Lazarillo's jobs was that of "pregonero," a town crier who would announce such events to the\par public so that they could be on hand to see the "pena por justicia."\par Lazarillo closes this part of his life with a\par perceptive statement about his mother and how she returned to her family, alone, her "Zayde"\par having been hung; "even with all of this, it fell to my mother to raise my little brother ...\par until he know how to walk and to raise me until I was big enough to run errands and to help where\par I was able." 34
\par Thus this remarkable author was able to combine the\par truly shattering events of this woman's life with her constant care of her children, in a few\par pages which contain seeds of romanticism as well as realistic details of that period. Lazarillo,\par depicted as loving and sympathetic to her, mentions that she had faith that God would guide him.\par She begs the blind man to treat him well and to look out for him, since he is an orphan.
\par _________________
\par 34La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op. cit., p. 75.
\par34 \par Once she has fulfilled her function as a\par mother to help Lazarillo on his way, she does not reappear in the book. Other woman are\par mentioned, laundresses, seamstresses and others that labor with their hands. A curious list of\par women appears only in the Alcaláa edition of Lazarillo "bodegeneras, turroneras,\par rameras," for whom the blind man prayed. He comments that most men would not offer prayers for\par women of that kind.35\par The author of Lazarillo presents women in\par groups, or as types, as part of the background for actions of the principal characters, with the\par exception of Lazarillo's mother who helped him shape his future.
\par The women in Gil BlasLazarillo, and they function as parts of the story. Lesage used the mother\par of Gil Blas as an opportunity to show a character change in his hero.
\par Gil Blas returned home to Oviedo to find his father\par dying and his mother in financial straits. A warmth not notable before in his personality\par appeared as he talked to his mother, listening to her discussions of some events through all of\par one night. Gil Blas was generous enough to arrange for her to have a regular 100 "pistoles" a\par year for herself and for his uncle Gil Perez, with whom he lived as a boy, and who he finds to\par be ill and senile.36
\par Generally, however, emotions are nut expressed warmly\par although Gil Blas falls in love often. His descriptions of his feelings are analytical rather\par than emotional and personal. He describes the women in careful detail, whether it be\par Lucèce, Antonia, Aurore, Laren&ecedil;a, Laura or many others. He regards them as sources\par of pleasure above all. Here is his impression of "la belle Antonia" whom he married, who\par evidently resembled Lesage's own beautiful wife.
\par ___________________
\par 35Lazarillo de Tormes, op. cit.,\par p. 95.\par 36Lesage, op. cit., II, pp. 189-193.
\par35 \par Je crois\par pouvoir donner cotte epithète à une fille de seize a dix-huit ans, qui joignait\par à' ses\par traits réguliersle nlus beau teint et les plus beaux\par youx réguliersdu monde. Elle n'édtait vêtue que\par de serge; mais une riche taille, un port majestueux, et des\par grâces qui n'accompagnent pas toujours\par la jeunesse, relevaient la simplicité de son\par habillement. Ella n;avait point de coiffure, ses cheveux \par étaient seulement noués par derrièrre\par avee un bouquet de fleurs à la façndes Lacédemoniemes ....\par Je fus aussi frappé de sa beauté que les\par paladins de la cour de Charlemagne le furent des appas \par d'Angélique.37\par It is interesting to note that Lesage marries his hero\par to this pastoral beauty rather than to some more extravagantly adorned and wealthy woman. The\par institution of marriage is weLl delineated througb discussion of whether or not Gil Blas should\par really marry this Antonia whose father was merely a farmer on his estate. He is told by friends\par that other seigneurs would not bother to go through the formlity of marriage, that he would do\par better to make the most of his pleasures with a girl; then marry one who was wealthier and whose\par father had influence.
\par However, Gil Blas marries her in a ceremony which shows\par all of the realistic details about the kind of materials for the wedding gown, the food to be\par eaten, the dancing at the reception, the general gairty of the occasion. Gil Blas discovers that\par the cook is Drobably in love with Antonia and she with him, but this does not deter him, because\par he looks upon even the finest woman as chattel of one kind or another.
\par ______________________
\par 37Lesage, op. cit., II, p. 214.
\par36 \par A more advantgaous marriage would have been\par the one arranged by Sciplon with the daughter of a silver merchant. Lesage brings into that\par discussion the "métier" of those merchants who were exploiting silver from Peru as a\par result of the Spanish conquest of that part of South America. Gabriel de Salaro's daughter would\par have brought with her a dowry of 100,000 ducats, but would not be as loveiy as the money. Her\par bourgeois father needed an introduction to the court and prmosed a trade, the details of\par which are set forth by Scipion as follows:\par Vous aurez\par sa fille avec cent mille ducats, pourvu qua vous lui fassiez voir clairement quo vous\par possédez les bonnes graces du ministre.... Entre nous, cette riche héritière\par n'est pas une fort jolie\par personne.38
\par Gil Blas then recalls that courtiers usually married\par only because the institution of marriage was a recognized custom for people of quality. It really\par had nothj-ng to do with love.
\par Nous autres\par gens de cour, nous n'épousons qua pour épouser seulemant. Nous ne charchons la\par beauté qua dans les femmes de nos amis; et si\par par hasard alle se trouve dans les nòtres nous y\par faisons si peu d'attention qua c'est fort bien\par fait quand elles nous en punissent.39
\par With this opinion of marriage expressed by Gi-I Blas,\par the reader must conclude that little improvewnt had occurred in the realm of justice toward\par women from 1554 to 1715. Women were even, in the Age of En;oghtenment, property to be traded,\par used for comfort or admired.
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\par 38Lesage, op. cit.., II, p. 138.\par 39 Lesage, op. cit., II., p. 139.
\par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par37 \par
CHAPTER III \par
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GIL BLAS AND LAZARILLO DE TORMES \par We have observed many resemblances\par between the Lazarillo de Tormes and Gil Blas even though they were written at\par widely divergent eras and places. The form of the first person narrative which gave credence to\par the story, the realism of the descriptions of daily life and the similarities of some of the\par themes discussed -- all of these were treated in the two books. Their authors both attacked\par injustices through satire of certain professions to which the hero was closely linked for a\par time.
\par The similarities lay often in basic broad outlines of\par subject or style, but if one examines below the surface, differences in style, structure, range\par of subject and mood begin to emerge. If we observe the character development of the hero, we\par notice that we notice that the personality of Gil Blas changes as the novel progresses, thus\par bringing him closer to the protagonist in the modern novel. We see that there is more of a plot\par in Gil Blas than in Lazarillo and that certain characters continue to appear\par throughout the book, which does not occur in Lazarillo.
\par The seven chapter edisodic structure of the\par Lazarillo had little connection between sections, but Lesage was able to develop the idea\par of episodes into a unit of twelve books, each divided into numrous chapters dealing with all\par levels of society from thieves and prostitutes to merchants and plotting courtiers at the court\par of Philip TV of Spain.
\par38 .\par Difference of Style\par Perhaps the greatest difference between the two books lies in\par their styles, which in a sense determine the mood of each. THe precise, objective style of\par Lesage created a mood vastly different from that of the introspective and self-analytical\par Lazarillo de Tormes. Themes of death, poverty, hunger and despair are treated by the\par religiously oriented Lazarillo while Gil Blas, the dispassionate observer, recounts interesting\par advenyures and speaks of beauty, happiness and the sumptuous life and surroundings of his time.
\par It is remarkable that given similar purposes the two books\par could emerge in such contrast as they have. They show vividly the change that occurs after time\par and new values have intervened. Lesage retained those elements of the picaresque novel which\par fitted into his style and experience. He had written comedies, had known how to create a comic\par scene on stage, but in the novel he added to that ability his flair for ornate descriptions and\par satirical asides which he would not have been able to inject into comic theatre dialogue. Bardon\par comments on Lesage's dramatic talents.
\par Que de deux de\par scènes d'attitudes, d'entrées comiques dans ce romar d'un dramaturge...paroles\par et gestes de théâtre, fatuité de\par théâtre ... Acteur dramtique, Lesage a la don de la vie; et, de\par même que dans son Turcaret, il l'a, dans le\par roman de Gil Blas, eminement, avec intensité.1
\par Much of Lesage's realism lies in his way of indicating what\par might have been stape directions, as to how to move around and how to make gestures. The\par following scene illustrates this art:
\par ______________________
\par 1Lesage., op, cit., p. xvi.
\par39 \par Il\par étend la jambe droite, et il penche la corps sur la hanche gauchn ..., 'comme un\par héros de\par théâtre qui se met à genoux devant sa\par princess....2\par He indicates the direction in which the logs should go and\par the body should lean, producing a comic exagerration. Lesage know how to make these scones come\par alive because he had been writing plays for the théâtre de la Foire for some time.\par In a span of nine years, from 1715 to 1724, he had produced forty-eight plays for this\par theatre.3 During some of those years he published the first six books of I'Histoire\par de Gil Blas de Santillane and had had an outstanding success with his comedy Turcaret\par in 1709.
\par In 1715, the first six books of Gil Blas were\par published, followed in 1724 by Books VII to IX and in 1735 by the rest of the work, Books X to\par XII.4 The clarity of description of actions and decor makes Gil Bias a\par storehouse of data about French as well as Spanish customs. Lesage's interest in hispanic culture\par is a part of the style because of the many Spanish words scattered throughout the text. By\par choosing to place his story in Spain, he was complying with an interest in fashion at the time,\par as Bardon says, in his preface to this 1962 edition, "Lesage n'aurait au qu'à obéir\par aux sollicitations de l'époque, à suivre le courant des esprits, de la\par curiosité, de la mode."
\par _________________
\par 2Lesage, op. cit., I, p. xvi, xvii.
\par 3Lesage, op. cit., I, p. xvii.
\par 4Lesages op. cit., II p. iii.
\par40 \par C'est le temps où,\par passionnée, frémissante, l'attention se dirige vers les faits et gestes de la\par cour de Madrid: à qui le débile Charles II\par laissera-t-il sa vaste monarchie? ... L'Espagne, du même\par coup, at tout ea qui est espagnol, retrouve en France\par prestige, favour .... N'était-ce pas le temps,\par aussi bien, où la comtesse d'Aulnoy nubliait ses\par Nouvelles espagnoles, ses Mémoires de la Cour\par d'Espagne, son Voyage en Espagne, surtout,\par ouvrages lus, relus, et de Lesage nommément?5\par In addition to tho factual books about Spain, there were also\par plays by Thomas and Pierre Corneille with Spanish subjects an4 of course, the translation of\par Guzmàn de Alfarache by Chapelain mentioned earlier.
\par There is no definite evidence that Lazarillo's author\par had any experience as a dramatist although some people have suggested that the popular comedy\par writer, Lope de Rueda could have had something to do with the book. He wrote a number of short\par and extremely comic pasos which dealt with realistic themes about the lower classes, of\par which one example is las aceitunas. This could be compared with the Lazarillo\par insofar as its characters and subject are concerned.
\par That the author of Lazarllo could produce scenes of great\par comedy and deep pathos, we have evidence in some of the extremely amusing tricks played by\par Lazarillo on his first two masters. The humor was avarice or despair of some sort.
\par When Lazarillo went to the trouble of having a tinker make\par a duplicate key for the broad chest, we know he wasn't Just playing a amusing game of wits. The\par reader is made to feel that the bread was necessary to save the boy's life. When Lazarillo slept\par with the key in his mouth for safekeeping and the priest of Maqueda tried to locate the whistling\par sound, it was true comedy. However, at the saw time the reading audience Identified with the hero and hoped that he wouldn't\par be caught.
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\par 5Lesage, op. cit., I, p. ii.
\par41 \par On the contrary, Lesage, with his objective manner of\par reporting comic scenes, seems to be standing in the corner watching events rather than being\par involved in the midst of them. The reader is rarely worried that Gil Blas will fail to survive a\par hair-raising situation. He escapes from the robbers and even is released from the tower where he\par has been told he will die -- all in deus-ex-machina theatre tradition.\par Lazarillo has a fright which produces a tragicomic\par effect in the third tractado when he encounters a funeral procession. Hw had been\par delighted to be sent to market to buy their first food, with an unexpectedly-found coin. On his\par way he is terrified by a crowd of people walking behind a coffin in slow steps. The women are\par weeping and crying out in loud voices that they are on the way to the house where people\par neither eat nor drink.
\par Marido y\par señor mio, adonde os ine Ilsuan? A la casa triste y desdichada, a la casa 1óbraga y\par obscura, a la casa donde nunca comen ni beuen.6
\par Lazarillo, frightened to death, forgets his mission and runs home as fast as his less will carry\par him and tells his master, "they are bringing that dead Derson to my house, 'the sad, accursed\par house where people neither eat nor drink.' That is our house, isn't it?" The eseudero\par bursts out laughing, one of the few times in the entire book when anyone laughs for sheer\par pleasure. There is a poetic quality of language in the repetition of the phrase "a la casa" which\par adds a note of Mysteryto the scene.
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\par 6La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op.\par cit., pp. 184-186.
\par42 \par As mentioned earlier, the difference in the two styles of\par these authors rests in their degree of objectivity. Lesage sketches with dispassionate strokes\par the clothes, gestures and attitudes of the characters. Lazarillo's author, more concerned\par with social and religious themes, as interpreted through Lazaro, causes his hero to become not\par only emotionally involved in an action, but to depend on the outcome of that action for his very\par life. It therefore seems that the humor should be labelled tragi-comedy. Lesage found that the\par comic and witty side of the picaresque novel suited him best, leaving the Hispanic picaresque\par form to carry over the personal and tragic motifs of the Lazarillo.\par Metaphors and Symbols; Differences in
\par Their Use\par The metaphors and symbols used by the two authors also\par reflect opposing backgrounds, in kind as well as in quantity of allusions. Classical, biblical\par and literary allusions abound in Gil Blas. Lesage employs a plethora of allusions, to\par name a few, Menelaus, Mercury, Plautus, Job, Horace, Maecenas, Bilpay, Cervantes, Gongara,\par Oedipus, Lucilias, with such ease that it almost seems as though they were a part of his daily\par vocabulary. Bardon's edition of the Gil Blas has a total of 222 footnotes, a large number\par of which explain references to classical authors and ancient myths.
\par Lesage wrote for people already well versed in the plays of\par Racine and Corneille which dealt with classical myths and themes. It was a mark of erudition to\par be able to scatter these allusions so frequently. Let us examine two of the classical references.\par
\par43 \par Lesage employs a passing reference to Plautus as\par an opportunity to make some remarks about writers and poets in general. The incident involves\par Nuñez., who compares himself to Plautus thus, "Mon génie s'élevant neu\par à neu, comme celui de Plaute, audessus de la servitude, je composai une comédie."\par Lesage knew enough about the life of Plautus to be able to use such a reference realistically.\par Bardcn points out that Plautus worked in business, lost jobs and money and eventually wrote his\par plays in his free time. Nuñez tells of just such happenings to him, but he is now writing\par in verse and in prose.\par Je suis devenu autour,\par je me suis jeté dans le bel esprit; j'%eacute;cris en vers et en prose; je\par suis au poil et à la Flume. Toi, favori d'Apollon!\par m'écriai-je en riant; voilà ce qua je n'aurais jamais\par deviné; ... Quels charmas as-tu donc du trouver dans\par la condition des poètes? Il me semble que ces\par gens-là sont méprisés 'dans la vie\par civile, et qu'ila n'ont pas un ordinaire reglé.7
\par From those statements of the two friends, Nuñez and Gil Blas, it seems as though the life\par of a writer is still precarious, and perhaps that makes it seem even more amazing that Lesage\par could earn a good living from writing.
\par Lesage develops quite a story around a reference to Oedipus.\par This tale revolves around a "vieille dame" named Inésile de Cantarillo who, Bardon says,\par greatly resembles Ninon de Lenclos who died at the age of eighty-five in 1705.8 Gil\par Blas, describes her as follows:
\par ________________
\par 7lesage., op. cit., II, p. 59.
\par 8Lesage, op. cit., II, p. 369, note 301.
\par44 \par C'était une\par personne prodigieuse. La nature lui await donné le privilè singulier de charer les\par hommes pendant le cours de sa vie, qui durait encore aprèes quinze lustres accomplis.\par avait été\par l'idole dos saigneurs de la vieille cour, elle se voyait\par adorée de ceux de la nouvelle. Le temps, qui\par n'epargne pas la beauté, s'exerçait en vain\par sur la sienne; il la flétrissait sans lui òter le pouvoir de\par plaire. Un air de noblesse, un esprit enchanteur et dos\par gràces naturalles lui faisaient faire des\par passions jusque dans sa vielesse.9\par After that glowing and admiring description, it is no wonder that Lesage arranges to have\par twenty-five-year old don Valerio de Luna fall in love with her. She is disturbed by the\par consequences of this infatuation and finally has to tell him that he is really her son, the\par child of don Pedro de Luna, governor of Segovia. She had secretly watched over him all of his\par Ufa and made sure that he would have the best of everything and that he would have an important\par position at the court. This scene carries in it all of the sense of the dramatic so\par characteristic of Lesage, ending with a satirical comment, most adroitly stated.
\par Doña Inésile tells the young man that he must\par think of her as his mother or he will be banished. Instead of confronting the problem squarely as\par she had hoped, he pulls out his sword with a flourish and plunges it in his chest.
\par Il se punit comrre un\par autre Oedipe, avec cette différance qua le Thébain s'aveugla de regret\par d'avoir consommé le crime, et qu'au contraire le\par Castillan se parça de douleur de ne poivoir le\par commettre. Le malheureux don Velorio ne mourut pas\par sur-Ie-champ du coup qu'il s'était porte. Il\par eut le temps de se reconnoitre et de demander pardon au ciel de\par s'être lui-même oˆtre la\par vie.10
\par Lesage's subtle irony and use of antithesis are brilliant here as he compares Oedipus and this\par Castilian who stabs himself because he cannot commit crime.
\par __________________________
\par 9Lesage, op. cit., II, p. 83.
\par 1OLesage, op. cit., II, p. 85.
\par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par45 \par \par Because of the sheer length of his book, Lesage had more\par space for allusions of this type and by the time of his epoch, literature had developed a\par refinement far advanced over that of the age of Lazarillo de Tormes. However, one of the\par important elements in the Lazarillo pointing to an author of some erudition were the\par references to Pliny, Marcus Tullius, Galen, Alexander the Great, Ovid, Penelope, biblical figures\par such as Job, St. Thomas, Magdalene, and contemporary peonle such as the Emperor and the King of\par France.
\par Those allusions become more an integral part of the text than\par those of Lesage who, as we have suggested, seemed to scatter well known names for the affect\par which they would have on his readers, rather than because they were necessary to the action of\par the novel. Thus, Lazarillo's author, in mentioning persecución por pena\par referred to an entire set of knowledge about the Bible. In describing actions against his father,\par Lazarillo says that he "confesso o no nego y padesció persecución por\par justicia,"11 He combined here two separate biblical verses from St. John and St.\par Matthew in a passage which be used to show how justice functioned at that time.
\par In the preface to Lazarillo de Tormes, the author\par quoted a statement from Pliny which stated part of his reason for writing this story, and in a\par few lines farther on in the text, he referred to Marcus Tullius who said in his\par Tusculanas, 1. 2, "honos alit, artes, omnesque incenduntur ad studia gloria,"12\par ___________________
\par IlLa vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op. cit.,\par p. 66.
\par 12La vida de Lamarillo de Tormes, op. cit.,\par p. 620 note 8.
\par46 \par In an expansion of this idea, the author says that,\par Very few writers would\par write only for their own enjoyment, because this is not accomplished\par without work, and they want to be rewarded, not so much with\par money, but by the knowledge that\par people will read their works and if possible, praise\par them.13
\par He goes on to conpare the art of writing a book to actions of\par soldiers or to sermons by the clergy, thus weaving many ideas in and out of his reference to\par Tullius.
\par Who would think that the\par soldier, who is the first in the scale, should want to risk his life?\par Certainly not; but the desire for praise makes him place\par himself in danger and it is the same in arts\par and letters .... And I ask your mercy, if you dislike it if\par someone says after a good sermon, 'how\par wonderfully well you preached!"14
\par After this artful use of a Latin allusion, the author\par continues to apoly this thought, and says that he apologizes for writing'in "este grossaro\par estilo."
\par Realism Through the Refranes
\par in Lazarillo de Tormes\par In much the same way, this author incorporated into his text\par many of the sayings or "refranes" which were constantly used by the common people of that day. We\par have already mentioned that Lazarillo's mother in an effort to improve herself and the situation\par of her family, decided to move away to "arrimarse a los buenos y seras vno dellos." The exact\par "refrain," "allegate a los buenos y seras vno dellos," is contained in the index of Refranes\par y frases compiled by Juan de Valdés and appears on page 54 of his Dialogo de la\par lengua, as edited by José Montesinoso.16\par __________________
\par 13La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op.\par cit., p. 62.
\par 14La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op.\par cit., pp. 62, 63.
\par 15Valdés, op. cit. p. 54.
\par47 \par These sayings were for the most part concrned with daily life, mentioning dogs, oxen, bread, \par mules, etc.; many of them turn up as an integral part of the realistic style of the\par Lazarillo. They also dealt with God, the Holy Scriptures, poor squires, other people\par in general and expounded much good advice, usually in unadorned language such as that found in\par Ben Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanac.\par Realistic Symbols and Yistaphors
\par The metaphors in Lazarillo belong to the world of the Spanish\par lower classes while Lesage wanders as far as the New World and the Philippine Islands for his\par comparisons. Lazarillo speaks of pears, lettuce, limes, all of the sweets of Valencia, as though\par they were heaven itself. Bread, of course, has a very special religious significance, as does\par wine, because of their place in the Eucharist. We find that Antonio was a fine artisan in the\par realm of swords, when the eseudero, hungry as he is, says that he wouldn't give a "marco\par de oro" for his sword.16
\par Lazarillo compares the escudero to a "galgo de buena\par casta" because he is so thin. A "galgo" is a Spanish hunting dog which appears in paintings of\par royalty of Spain. Lazarillo's author rarely mentions articles of clothing while Gil Blas,\par as we have seen in the descriptions of the archbishop of Granada and of Antonia, is careful to\par mention many details. He describes one of his own extravagant outfits, noting that he rejected\par some which appeared too simple,
\par On me montra des habits\par en toutes sortes de coleurs. On m'en fit voir plusieurs de drap tout uni.\par Je les rejetai avec\par mépris, parce qua je las trouvai trop modestes: mais ils m'en firent essayer\par un qui semblait avoir été fait pour ma taille\par et qui m'éblouit,\par quoiqu'il fût un\par pou passé. \par C'était un pourpoint à manches\par tailladées, avec un haut-de-chausses et un manteau, la tour\par de velours bleu et brodéd'or.17
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\par 16La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op. cit.,\par p. 160.
\par 17Lesage, op. cit., I, p. 54.
\par48 \par Again, Lesage's details produce a portrait so that the\par individual described could be dressed for a play or painted with precision.\par When Lazarillo mentions clothes, he uses them as part of the\par action. For instance, he says that his fourth master, a Friar of Mercy, gave him his first pair\par of shoes, which lasted only eight days. He ends the ninety-four-line tractado with an\par enigmatic remark about these shoes:
\par Este me dio los primeros\par çapatos que rompt en mi vida; mas no me duraron ocho días. Ni yo\par pude con su trote durar mas. Y por esto y por otras cosillas\par que no digo, sali dél."
\par The statement seems straightforward at first reading, but\par Cajador says that this one-page chapter is one of the most anticlerical chapters in the book. The\par author implies and suggests but doesn't name activities of the clerical personnel with whom\par Lazarillo lives. His final stateraent, "because of this and some other minor things which I shall\par not tell now, I departed," must have had serious implications which bear investigation into\par events of that day.
\par A reference should be made to the striang difference in the\par use of colors by the two authors. We have noted that Gil Blas is glowing in his descriptions of\par sumptuous clothes and furniture. He mentions textures of materials and is careful to suggest hues\par and brightness of colors more than dull ones.
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\par \par 18La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes, op. cit., p. 204
\par49 \par On the contrary, Lazarillo's author has a\par preoccupation with the color black. He describes the eseudero's bed as being black, as\par having a black mattress and even mentions his black honor. There is mention of black fate\par reminiscent of the black bird of Fate which we find in nineteenth century South Amrican novels)\par such as Jorge Isaacs' Faría. The Association of black with mourning for the dead\par intensities the importance of this color since the Lazarillo is filled with death,\par mention of tombs and such symbols. Black is mentioned in connection with disagreeable actions,\par such as "mi negra trepa y cardenales," referring to a flogging Lazarillo received from the blind\par man.\par Strong Emotions and Themes
\par of Hunger, Despair,Death\par The strong, personal emotions in Lazarillo de Tormes\par together with the emphasis on hunger, desperation and death mark additional important differences\par between the two books and their centuries. Gil Blas, although shocked at the scene of an\par auto-da-fé of the Inquisition, could report it with equanimity, using his mind to analyze\par it as a son of cartesianism and the motto of "cogito ergo sum." On the other hand, at the outset,\par the author of Lazarillo placed his hero in the position of facing the fact of his own\par mother's public humiliation, his own starvation and later, that of his third master, who had\par become a friend.
\par Gil Blas analyzes injustices and persecution; Lazarillo\par suffers himself and communicates that feeling to the reader much as the Romantics did three\par centuries later, Gil Blas is the story-teller, the adventurer who presages The Count of Monte\par Cristo, d'Artagnan, Lazarillo through his humanitarianism presages Jean Valjean. Leesage's book epitomized the objectivity\par soon to dominate the eighteenth century in France. This century would produce \par I'Encyclopédie, a monument to care and detail, and déisme a radical change\par in religious ideas.
\par50 \par Warmth and expression of emotions would be secondary\par in France until "pauvres gens" and a novel about "les misérables." Victor Hugo would show\par love for children and the poor of the world as well as for sinners in "la prièrs pour\par tous," even as had Lazarillo when he told of persecution and of his mother and his little black\par brother.\par The strong emotions expressed in the Lazarillo\par resulted from real events. Lazarillo's Spain of the 1550's or even the 1520's as suggested by\par some scholars as the date of composition of Lazarill019 was suffering from\par famine and crop failure. hunger and desperation which sent him from one master to another,\par searching for a way to survive.
\par Comic devices and satire were clever ploys to engage\par the reader and even to emphasize underlying truths by juxtaposing humor and tragedy. Lazarillo\par stayed with each master until desperation drove him on. F. Courtney Tarr makes the interesting\par observation,
\par Lazarillo\par leaves his first master, is dismissed by the second and is abandoned by the third. As they rise\par in the social scale from commoner to clergy to gentry, they give him less and less to eat.\par 20
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\par 19Otis H. Green, Spain and the Western\par Tradition, Vol. III, (Madison, Wisc.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965), p. 435.
\par 20F. Courtney RTarr, "Literary and Artistic\par Unity in Lazarillo de Tormes", PMLA, XLII (1927), p. 412.
\par51 \par Gentry in this quotation referred to the squire of the\par third tractado, a prototype of landed gentry who had returned from military\par engagements to find hunger and desolation at home. If Lazarillo received nothing to\par eat from the eseudero, it is because there was nothing available. Lazarillo shared his\par last bit of broad with his new master, having discovered that the house, which he called "una\par casa encantada?, contained no elements for life.\par A sense of doom dominates this episode even beneath the comic\par outlines of the proud man who dared not admit why he paused with a flourish, searching for a key\par to an empty house, a cavalier who delicately picked his tooth so that casual observers would\par think he had just eaten. There is an atmosphere of gloom transmitted also by the numerous\par articles which are black or dark-colored.
\par The insistence in the Lazarillo on black, a color\par associated with death in the Spanish tradition, is a clue to a theme barely touched in Gil\par Blas, that of death. When Gil Blas's father dies, this is reported as an event which changed\par his mother's future life. There is little expressed emotion involved and the hero's thoughts are\par directed immediately to life and a solution to problems confronting her rather than to gloom and\par foreboding.
\par On the contrary, the death of Lazarillo's father mentioned in\par the first paragraphs of the story sets the scene for the "aduersidades" which Lazarillo announced\par in the title of the book. Thomas Gonçales' death in the tragic war of Gelves causes\par destitution in the family, War has meant disruption, tragedy and death to Lazarillo.
\par To Gil Blas wars were exploits recounted by old men. He was\par not personally involved with death from war. His father bad served in the military, but had lived\par through it. He tells of Don Vincent, who although a charming man, had one fault which Gil Blas\par says we should pardon "aux vieillards".
\par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par52CONCLUSION OF CHAPTER III \par \par Il aimait A parlor et\par principaiment de guarre et de combats. Si par malheur on venait à toucher\par cette corde en sa présence, il embouchait dans le\par moment la trompette hérôique et ses auditeurs se\par trouvaient trop heureux quand ils en étaient\par quittés pour la relation de deux sièges et de\par trois batailles.21
\par Lesage's avoidance of the emotional or destructive aspects of\par war in this and other references is an additional demonstration of the analytical quality\par peculiar to his century and nation. Reason and attention to details dominated his realism whereas\par the author of Lazarillo described actual tragic results of military operations, including\par the death of people close to the protagonist. He made the reader experience the actions almost as\par Lazarillo did himsslf.
\par Lazarillo became preoccupied with his own impending death\par from starvation as his legs began to weaken during the second tractado particularly. In a\par curious paradox he stole the "bodigos" of the dead to give him life. He expressed guilt for\par hoping that some people would die so that he could have the priest's bread.
\par In a span of a few lines, intimations of Romanticism and\par Naturalism can be seen in the insistence on the personal, the tragic and the grotesque where an\par individual for his own survival must eat bread assigned to the dead. The fact that many\par unsuccessful tricks are involved in his getting to the bread adds comedy also to this scene.\par Lazarillo is far removed from Gil Blas in this extremism for Lesage controlled his characters\par within reason and the golden mean. Lazarillo explains his guilty feelings about the peopIe who\par must die in order to give him life.
\par ______________________
\par 21Lesage,, op, cit. I, p. 193.
\par53 \par En todo el\par tiempo quo alli estuve que seria quasi seys meses, solas voynte personas\par falleacieron y estas bien, creo que las mate yo o, por\par mejor dezir, murieran a Tni requesta. Porque\par Viendo el Señor mi rauiosa y continua maerte, pienso\par que bolgauba de matarlos para darme a mi\par vida.\par Note the irony in the statement that he killed these\par people or they died at his request. The blending of humor and tragedy is opposite to the mood of\par Lesage, who actually reflected the classic separation of comic and tragic conditions as observed\par by Racine, Corneille and Molière. Lazarillo's author, some fifty years before\par Shakespeare was to blend comic burlesque and stark tragedy on the stage, combined these elements\par in his brief novel.
\par A romamtic preoccupation with the themes of death and\par desperation has continued in Hispanic literature up to the present. The funeral procession in the\par third tractado of Lazarillo resembles the procession in Federico Garcia Lorca's\par Bodas de Sangre, a twentieth century Spanish play about a widowed mother, life, death and\par marriage for property. La Vida Inútil de Pito Perez, Romero's picaresque novel about\par Mexico mentioned earlier in this paper, is so concerned with death and desperation that the book\par ends with the hero dying in a garbage heap. Another Mexican novel, La Muerte de Arterdo\par Cruz by Carlos Fuentes, deals with a deathbed remembrance of days gone by. Death is\par ever-present because Artemio Cruz, drifting between life and death, makes one aware throughout\par the book that death is inevitable, and the reader is left with only this emphasis, even after a\par long, involved plot.
\par ______________________
\par 22La vida de Lazarilla de Tormes,\par op. cit., p. 121.
\par54 \par From the time of the Coplas of\par Jorge Manrique written on the death of his father -- before the Lazarillo -- to the\par present, death has been a universal theme in Spanish literature. Perhaps the author of\par Lazarillo included so much on this subject because as a Spaniard he was already steeped in\par concern for death and its consequences, and he knew that his readers had the same preoccupations.\par\par The Significance of the
\par Names of the Picaro Heros\par The name chosen for Lazarillo bears within it seeds of\par life and death in its biblical origin, and as Cajador says, it "captures in one name the three\par traditional characters attributed to the legendary Lazaro, whose origin is the beggar, Lazarus,\par in Luke 16: 20, Lazarus raised from the dead by Jesus, John 11:2; and St. Lazarus,, the poor\par beggar of the Middle Aoes."23
\par One may imagine the images evoked in the minds and\par hearts of readers as they began this small book. The emotions about Lazarus would be intense\par ones to a religious person living in a country which is just emerging from the Middle Ages. To\par give this triple-charged name to a young, poor boy who described himself as being born in the\par river, was an ingenious method for comparing him to Amadis de Gaula, the popular chivalric\par hero who was also born in the river.
\par The title of the book with its mention of adversities\par and the rame of Lazarillo showed in one sroke that this would be a now kind of hero, one who\par might deal with the same kinds of troubles that plagued the people of Spain. But the name and the\par title were realistic, and evocative of the sixteenth century of Spain.
\par _______________________
\par 23La vida de Lazarillo de Tormes. op. cit., p. 17.
\par55 \par In contrast, Lesage chose a bland name for\par his hero, Gil Blas, the observer, rather than the intensely sensitive picaro. The name, Gil\par Blas, is appropriate for a light-hearted adventurer, a picaro of the "free life," to return to\par the definition of Cervantes. Gil Blas adds the Marquis de Santillane to his original name later\par when he becomes more important in society and less of a picaro.\par Do these names not point out some of the evolution\par which has taken place in the picaresque novel? The witty, clever tricks of Lazarillo really\par concealed deeper social and religious meanings of life and death in the Spanish tradition. Losage\par knew how to incorporate the subtle irony and cleverness of Lazarillo into the perfect nicaresque\par hero, concerned with adventures of an amusing nature, still not abandoning the criticism of\par society, but making it more impersonal and objective. Actually, Lesage's book as well as the name\par of Gil Blas fits remarkably well into the definition of the "adventures of a now type of the free\par life," by the acknowledged master of Spanish literature, Miguel de Cervantes.
\par We have seen that the author of Lazarillo\par presented his hero as an individual who suffered because of his mother's degradation, his\par father's death and his own hunger. These are underlying themes nresented with superb irony so\par that the reader might be aware of only the humor if he failed to probe beneath the surface.\par Lesage also encases the events of his novel in irony, but the wide contrasts found in the\par Lazarillo do not appear in Gil Blas. At times, Gil Blas seems to be simply telling\par a great many tales, most of which are amusing and some of which are actually forerunners of\par adventure stories about highwaymen and stagecoaches and lovely maidens.
\par56 \par Gil Blas's first adventure has Indeed the elements for\par a thriller. He is captured by Captain Rolando, chief of a band of robbers who live in a\par fascinating cave equipped with stables for the horses and living quarters for the robbers. A\par sixty-year-old woman whom he calls "ce bel ange des ténèbres," does the cooking for\par them in a well-appointed kitchen. Gil Blas took the place of a young boy who "s'ost laissé\par mourir depuis quinze jours," which sounded ominous, but a reader of Lesage knows enough not to\par worry about the outcome. Classical allusions abound in this episode and Lesage sets the scene\par with details of furnishings and clothing:\par Il me mena\par dans une cave., où je vis une infinité de bouteilles, et de pots de terra bien \par bouchés, qui étaient pleins, disait-il,\par d'un vin excellent. Ensuite, il me fit traverser plusieurs\par chambres. Dans les unes, il y avait des pièces de toile; dans les\par autres, des étoffes de laine et des\par étoffes de soie. J'aperçus dans une\par autre de l'or et do l'argent, sans compter beaucoup de vaisselle\par a diverses armoiries. Apés cela, je le suivis\par dans un grand salon que trois lustres de cuivre\par écairaient, et qui servait de communication à 'd'autres chambres.24
\par Captain Rolando whose name evokes an image of the\par French epic hero, is the son of wealthy parents who gave him everything ha wanted but he turned\par to the profession of robbery which gives him great satisfaction. Lesage takes this opportunity to\par say that parents should see that their children have a proper education, for Captain Rolando\par says that his tutors weren't allowed to punish him and so he learned nothing from his earLy\par tutors. One of his lieutenants tells the story of his life, quite an opposite one, in which he\par is beaten constantly as a child, but makes his way in the world by feigning blindness and begging\par for alms. Through their varied life stories, Lesage presents a picture not onlv of various\par ways of earning a living in those days, but also of the robbers' sense of values. Rolando says\par to Gil Blas:
\par ____________________
\par 24Lesage, op. cit., p. 15 (Vol. I).
\par57 \par Tu vas, mon\par enfant, ... see mener ici une vie bien agréable .... Eh! voiton d'autres gens dans le\par monde? Non, mon ami, tous les hommes aiment à\par s'approprier le bien d'autrui; c'est un sentiment\par général, la manière seule de le\par faire en est différente. Los conquérants, par exemple, s'emparent\par états des de leurs voisins. Less personnes de\par qualité empruntent, et ne rendent point. Les \par banquiers, trésoriers, agents de change,\par commis, et tous les marchands, tant gros que petits, ne\par sont pas fort scrupulaux. Pour les gens de justice, je\par n'en parlerai point; on ignore point ce qu'ils\par savent faire. Il faut pourtant avouer qu'ils sont plus\par humains que nous; car souvent nous ôtons la\par vie aux innocents, et aux quelquefois le sauvent\par mêime aux coupables.25\par The fact that Lasage combines these adventures with\par serious comments reinforces his quotation from Horace given in the preface to the reader,\par "L'utile mêlé avec l'agréable." He manages to criticize a large segment of\par society in the above quotation; bankers, merchants, law enforcement officials, heads of state and\par people of quality. This he inserts quite casually into an adventure story about highwaymen. His\par last remark about those connected with the law deserves special comment because of its subtle\par irony and antithesis.
\par However, the adventure story continues with Gil Blas\par held as prisoner together with a beautiful lady, so that it has really all of the elements needed\par for pure amusement. To devote that much space to an adventure story would be quite foreign to\par Lazarillo's author. The social significance behind the thieves' choosing robbery as a profession,\par while mentioned in passing by Gil Blas, would have been of prime importance to Lazarillo. The\par debonair attitude in Gil Blas is strong in these first episodes. Lintilhac says of them,
\par ______________________
\par 25Lesage, op. cit., I, pp. 22, 23.
\par58 \par Un air vif de\par jeunessee et de belle humeur souffle partout; et une indomitable gaieté dore\par toutes ces misè'res ... c'est tout compte fait,\par la ton picaresque qui domine presque partout dans\par cette première partie.26\par This lighthearted tone is characteristic of the early\par books before Lesage became more concerned himself with complicated stories and social\par commentaries.
\par Additional subjects contrasting with those of\par Lazarillo are those of the theatre, the salons, which while mentioned in connection with\par Spain are typical of Lesage's France. The lay attitude of Lesage together with the emphasis on\par life and happiness contrasts sharply with the religious tone of nearly every page of the\par Lazarillo. While Gil Blas often refers to God, he does not give the impression that he is\par really dependent on him, whereas Lazarillo insists that this or that will occur, with the help\par of God, or, as in an example given above, he mentioned that the blind man -- after God -- had\par helped him on his way.
\par ____________________
\par 26Lintilhac, op. cit., p. 91.
\par59 The intervening years have produced a change in\par religious attitudes as well as a groat expansion of themes and subjects treated in the later\par novel, but both Lazarillo and Gil Blas functioned as amusing satirical mirrors of their\par particular society. Behind the scenes where clergymen, doctors and pseudo-doctors functioned, the\par reader discovered hunger, injustice, avarice and hypocrisy. While he laughed, he also often wept\par or at least paused, as he considered the cause of his amusement. This was much of the artistry of\par these authors who were so opposite in some ways and yet so alike in attitude and purpose.
\par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par60 \par
Chapter IV
\par EVOLUTION FROM LAZARILLO DE TORMES TO GIL BlAS\par This thesis has attempted to trace the\par picaresque novel fron its origins in antiquity to the first work defined as such, La vida de\par Lazarillo de Tormes y de sus forttunas y sus aduersidades. It has been shown that the ideas\par expressed there were so explosive that the still anonymous author was forced into exile or was\par himself eliminated by an oppressive regime. The study has indicated the power of the printed page\par which in the case of this work, influenced two continents and four centuries. Each imitator\par culled from the original idea the part which most appealed to him and to his generation and\par nationality, using it in unique ways, while still preserving the form and structure of the\par original.
\par The French writer, Alain Lesage, was the most\par successful of these imitators in preserving the essential quality of the picaresque hero -- his\par wit, his satire, his irony -- the idea of a low-born hero who uvuld tell the story of his\par adventures in such a way as to show injustices along the path of his life as he moved around\par through various professions. The climate of early eighteenth century France van evidently right\par for just such a new form, embodied in Gil Blas, the Marquis of Santillane, for Lesage was one of\par the first French writers of novels to be able to earn enough from the sale of the books to live\par comfortably.
\par61 \par Lesage brought to his book a vivacious style which\par enlivened the numerous and often complicated adventures in Gil Blas. Inherent in his hero's\par actions was a concept of freedom of the individual to act, a notion already taking root in the\par New World. Later in the eighteenth century, Diderot wrote to the Princess Dashkoff that,\par Chaque\par siècle a son esprit qui le caractérise. L'esprit du nôtre semble être\par celui de la liberté.\par (1771)
\par This esprit de la liberté is certainly\par part of the appeal of character of Gil Blas and is essentially the principal ingredient in the\par realization of the picaresque novel, Actually, both Lazarillo and Gil Blas demonstrated that the\par individual had a right to be free, even if enslaved by ignorance and poverty. But Gil Blas\par was able, because of the development in thought throughout the years intervening between the two\par books to achieve the "new kind of freely moving hero" described by Cervantes as the hero of the\par new genre.
\par The reader of this thesis may have observed that the\par term of anti-hero has been avoided insofar as it has been possible. The ancient concept of a hero\par was that of a kind of superman. Perhaps the day when the common man might become a hero was\par predicted when the young and desperate Lazarillo showed that some of the beasts to be conquered\par were established institutions whose leaders had forgotten their original purposes. Lazaro took\par the advice of Erasmus and girded himself with the armor of faith and a sword of wit to make his\par way through the forest of beasts. In the midst of death and starvation, Lazarillo was able to\par cross borders and journey across oceans, although authorities attempted to extinguish his name\par from his own country. His descendants are legion in Spanish America where thousands have read\par El Periquillo Sarniento, Hijo de Ladr6n, Juan Criollo, La Vida\par In´'til de Pito Pérez, and other representatives of the picarosque novel. These Spanish versions were\par concerned more with social, religious and political problems than were the descendants of the\par French picaresque through Gil Blas.
\par62 \par Lazarillo's French descendant took from him the subtle\par wit, the adventurous spirit, the sense of freedom and transmitted the idea of the ironic\par adventurer to a countless number of lighthearted rogues generally unconcerned with religious or\par social implications. His light heart and his many adventures seem to have won out in his English\par and French descendants who are turning up in television and in the movies as The Rogues,\par James Bond, Woody Allen's Take the Money and Run and To Catch a Thief.\par It seems to the writer that the British branch of the\par picaresque novel brings together in its heroes the social concerns of Lazarillo and the\par roguishness of Gil Blas to produce such picaros as Tom Jones, Moll Flanders and in\par modern days Gully Jimson of Joyce Cary's novel, The Horse's Mouth..
\par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par \par63 \par BIBLIOGRAPHY
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\par Romanic Review, 59 (1968), 106-121.\par Barnes, Harry Elmer. An Intellectual and Cultural History of the Western World.
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\par Psychological Realism." Studies in Philology 66 (1969), 119-34.\par Carri6 de la Vandera, Alonso. El Lazarillo, a Guide for Inexmerienced Travelers Between Buenos\par Aires and Lima, 1773, by Concolorcorvo. Trans. Walter D. Kline.\par Bloomington: Indiana University\par Press, 1965.
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\par revue et complétée par Robert Bossuet, Ren´ene Fromilhage,
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\par Paris: Garnier Frès, 1962.\par Lesage, Alain René. Histoire de Gil Blas de Santillane, ed. René Bizet.
\par Paris: A la cité de livres, 1929-30.\par Lintilhac, Eugène F. Lesage. Paris: Hachette, 1893.
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\par Esther Odell Hays was born in Philadelphia, Pa. on\par September 12, 1920. She spent her first five years in Habana, Cuba, after which the family moved\par to Montclair, New Jersey, where she was educated in the public schools. She graduated from New\par Jersey College for Women (now Douglass College), Rutgers University, in 1942 with a B. A. degree\par in French, with a Spanish minor. Since graduation she has lived in Cuba, Now York City and Puerto\par Rico where she taught English, Spanish, French and Latin at the pilot school on the campus of\par Inter American University, where her husband was Associate Professor of Mathematics.\par She began her graduate work in Spanish at the Middlebury (Vermont)\par Spanish Summer School in 1965 and later enrolled in the University of Maine Graduate School. She\par is a member of the Modern Language Association, the American Association of Teachers of Spanish\par and Portuguese and the American Association of University Women. In 1970 she was elected to\par membership in the Spanish Honor Society, Sigma Delta Pi and in 1971 was awarded first prize for\par her essay, "Vista de Toledo por Lazarillo de Tormes," an entry in a literary contest sponsored by\par Sigma Delta Pi.
\par She is a candidate for the degree of Master of Arts in Comparative\par Literature from the University of Maine in August, 1971.
\par