The humanism of the Renaissance had created a distaste for the verbose, formalistic scholasticism, still dominant in the schools, and had turned men back to the cult of pagan antiquity, to naturalism, and in some cases to unbelief. Other minds, it is true, were led by the Renaissance itself to the study of Christian antiquity, but, under the influence of the mysticism which had shortly before this become current as a reaction from the system of the schools and the philosophy of the literati, they ended by exaggerating the power of faith and the authority of Holy Scripture. It was this class of thinkers, affected at once by humanism and mysticism, that took the initiative, more or less consciously, in the reform for which public opinion clamoured.

Before Martin Luther had emerged as a Reformer in Germany, French Humanists had created much interest in biblical studies and had aroused a concern for a purer type of Christianity.

Margaret of Angoulême, a sister of King Francis I, became the centre of a Humanistic group known as the group of Meaux, which created great interest in reform. Its members contributed much by their writings to biblical and theological studies that were used by the Protestants. Several members of the group left it and became Protestants.

Jacquues Lefèvre d'Étaples ("the French Martin Luther") predated Luther's "Theses" 5 years by arguing that humans can only be saved by Faith in the Grace of God, earned by The Redeeming Sacrifice of Christ -- that is, Lefèvre demanded a return to The Gospels. and translated The New Testament and The Psalms into French. In 1512, while teaching the reconciliation of Plato with St. Paul at the University of Paris, Lefèvre published a Latin translation of The Epistles of Paul, with a commentary on justification by faith, not works that clearly challenged to Roman Catholicism. He also denied the doctrine of transubstantiation: the theological dogma that in the Eucharist the administered bread and wine become, by priestly consecration, the actual body and blood of Jesus Christ, although external manifestations remain.

In 1523 Lefèvre issued a French translation of The New Testament and a year later of The Psalms. This and his negative remarks about the behavior of some of the clergy brought condemnation as a heretic by The Sorbonne. Lefèvre fled to Strasbourg in 1525. But gratitude of François to Marguerite for helping to free him from prison (after François' Pavia defeat) led him to recall both Lefèvre and his disciple, Gerard Roussel, from exile. Lefèvre was appointed Royal Librarian at Blois and tutor to the children of François. But, in 1531, François became angered at Protestants and Lefèvre took refuge in Marguerite's castle in Southern France, where he lived until his death in 1537 at age 87.

At first Lafèvre's writings were well received by church and state officials, but as Luther's radical doctrines began to spread into France, Lafèvre's work was seen to be similar, invoking persecution of his followers. Many leading Protestants fled from France and settled in the republic of Geneva or Switzerland until strengthened in numbers and philosophy by the Calvinistic reformation in Geneva. More than 120 pastors trained in Geneva by Calvin returned to France before 1567 to proselytize for Protestantism. In 1559 delegates from 66 Protestant churches in France met at a national synod in Paris to draw up a confession of faith and rule of discipline based on those practiced at Geneva. In this way the first national Protestant church in France was organized; its members were known as Huguenots.

Gérard Roussel (?-1550) became Marguerite's almoner. At a time when François was absent, Marguerite's husband, Henri, King of Navarre, authorized Roussel to preach at the Louvre and attended himself. When Roussel was attacked, Henri put in a word for him with François. Roussel and others drew up for Marguerite a revised confession of faith, "Messe à sept pointe (Mass of seven points)". In 1540 Marguerite procured papal appointment of Roussel to the vacant border bishropic of Oléon.

Guillame Briçonnet (?-1533), Lefèvre's pupil, was appointed Bishop of Meaux in 1516, and historians refer to "The Meaux Group" in fostering reform. Briçonnet appointed to benefices such reformers as Lafère, Farel, Barquin, Roussel, and Vatable, exhorting them to preach "return to the Gospels". Marguerite applauded this, making him her spiritual director. But when, in 1511, the Sorbonne condemned Luther, Briçonnet urged his colleagues to make peace with the Church, believing, with Erasmus and Marguerite, that the Unity of the Church was more important than reform.

Louis de Berquin (1489-1529) translated some of Luther's writings into French, earning condemnation as heretic, in 1523, by The Sorbonne. Marguerite interceded for him. Later, however, François needed mney to ransom his sons from Emperor Charles V. He made a deal with the clergy involving 1,300,000 livres in return for a firmer stand against Lutheranism. And, after an incident in which Catholic images were defaced, and anti-reformist sentiment became uncontrollable, Berquin was burned at the stake.

? Caroli (x-y), a disciple of Lefèvre. When attacked in 1525, Marguerite made him her almoner (a position left vacant by Roussel, and appointed him to the curacy of Alençon.

Etienne Le Court (x-y), by Marguerite's support, was appointed administrator of the hospital of Mortagne and later curate of Condé-sur-Sarthe. In spite of Marguerite's protection, Le Court was burned alive at the end of 1523.

Guilliame Farel (1489-1565) has been called "John the Baptist to Calvin" -- a homology wherein Farel plays the presaging role to Calvin that John the Baptist played to Jesus. Farel was a member of Briçonnet's "Meaux group", and Briccedil;onnet appointed him to a benfice. In 1523, during the riotous "Affair of the Placards", it was rumored that Farel was the author of the writing on the Placards. Influenced by Lefère, Farel disdained ordination and wandered the France and Switzerland as an independent preacher, denouncing the pope as the Anti-Christ, the Mass as sacrilege, church icons as idols to be destroyed. Farel was short in stature, weak-boned but strong of voice, with fiery eyes and a flaming red beard. In 1532, Farel began to preach in the Geneva, persuading the Council of Twenty-Five to his views. Aided by Peter Viret and Antoine Froment, Farel aroused such support that nearly all the Catholic clergy fled, the Mass was abolished, relics removed from the churches, ecclesiastical properties taken for Protestant purposes. Citizens were exhorted to delare allegiance to The Gospel, and those refusing to attend Reformed Seervices were banished.

It was to this reformed Geneva that Calvin came, when Farel was 47 and Calvin was 20 years younger. Recognizing Calvin's ability, but reacting to Calvin's reluctance, Farel threatened Calvin with a holy curse if he preferred private studies to the dangerous teaching of "The Word". The same year, Calvin accompanied Farel and Viret to Lausanne, where an entire district was occupied by prostitutes, under the rule of their Reine du Bordel (Brothel Queen) Shocked by this and other evidences of "immorality", Farel issue a Confession of Faith and Discipline and Calvin issued a popular Catechism, both approved by the Council, and Protestant ecclesiastical rule spread through the city. But the Geneva Council and the populace drove out Farel and Calvin. Farel accepted a call to Neufchatel where he preached to the end of his days in 1565. But Calvin eventually returned to Geneva, transforming into his conception of "The City of God", with incursions into France. Farel again became closely involved with Calvin as a result of the troubles stirred up by Michael Servetus (x1511-1553), whose "heresies" included the support of the Copernican solar system and the (unBibilical) belief that blood circulates in the body. Condemened to die, Calvin offered to speak for Servetus if he would renounce his hereticla beliefs, but the aged Farel reproved such tolerance, and Servetus was burned at the stake.

François Vatable, a renowned Hebrew scholar, "an "upright and oustanding exegete", was one of the tutors which Louise of Savoy procured for her young children, Marguerite and François. Later, Vatable taught Hebrew at the Collège Royale (later renamed Collège de France). In 1534, a suit was brought by the Sorbonne against Vatable and some other lecturers at the Collège Royale, enjoining them not to teach Hebrew and Greek; but king François squelched the suit. Vatable asked Clement Marot to translate the Psalms into French, which pleasedFrançois I.

Clement Marot, at instigation of François Vatable of the Collège Royals, translated some of the Psalms into French. This translation pleased François I so much that he sent a copy to Emperor Charles V, then his friend. And Charles sent Marot 100 crowns ($5000?). Marot translated more of the Psalms, issuing them in 1543 with a dedication to "the ladies of France". Goudimel set them to music, to be sung in many sections of France. But their approval by Luther and Calvin instigated suspicions of heresy from the Sorbonne. Marot fled to Geneva, but failed to find sanctuary, so slipped into Italy, where he died (1544) in Turin at age 49, leaving an illegitmate daughter in the care of Marguerite.

Pierre Leclerc was the brother of Jean Leclerc who instigated a riot in 1523. Bishop Briçonnet published on his cathedral door a papal bull of indulgences. Jean Leclerc tore this down and replaced it by a placard denouncing the pope as anti-Christ. For this Jean Leclerc was burned alive. In 1546, Pierre Leclerc led a group of Lutherans at Meaux. Fourteen of the group were tortured and burned alive. DO YOU WISH TO SEE THE FRONTPAGE OF THIS FILE?